A Brief History of Japanese Comics Part 5: 1950's: Gekiga and Children Comics

Welcome to another addition of... A Scroll in Time!

This week...

So, I know I promised to talk about Osamu Tezuka this time but first, I thought it best to explore the comics that developed around Tezuka. After World War II, Japanese comics developed a split between comics aimed at children and more "mature" comics. Here we will look at the division between them and the part that Tezuka played in it all.

Gekiga comics
After Japan’s surrender in 1945, comics took a dramatic upturn. Although comic and magazine circulations had bottomed, comics survived into the 50’s and 60’s through rental shops. 30,000 rental shops, often filled of comics by young, amateur artists, helped fill this market to approximately 160,000 patrons each month by the mid 1950’s [4].

As the comic world developed in an amateur market, the drawing styles also changed from the earlier industry-driven years. With the political limitations eased since the end of the war, artists practiced a more realistic, political form of comic stories. In 1957, teenaged artist Tatsumi Yoshihiro created the term gekiga, or ‘dramatic pictures’, for this style/genre. Opposed to earlier political cartoons and comics directed at children, gekiga is described as a “serious adult manga dramas” and include topics like action, horror, and erotica [4].

Example of gekiga style comic art

According to Kisella, “Early gekiga was characterized by a new degree of graphic realism and themes related to society and politics. It captured a youthful passion which contributed, in the view of some critics, to its striking ‘authenticity’ as a cultural form”.

A generation of artists and soldiers arose out of the last war, and new stories came with them. A new artists group, Gekiga Factory, created an eight-volume manga, Ninja Bungeicho (Secret Martial Arts of the Ninja), which became a very popular rental title during its serialization 1959-1962. Ninja included an anonymous group which fights alongside peasants and beggars against oppressive fief lords. Other stories, spanning into the 1970’s, echoed this same feeling with Kamuiden’s peasant uprisings [4]. Although historical in nature, these synopses seemed to mirror the last few decades well and readers doubtless felt it resembled their own lives.

cover of Manga Boy

Post-war Children’s magazines
Where serialized comics dropped off during the end of the war, red books picked up. New artists attempted to thrive in the red book industry, whether with original content or duplicated. The magazine Manga Boy was one of the first post-war successes. While using the graphic style developed within the red books, Manga Boy became popular almost instantaneously after release [4].

Storylines for any comic at this time changed direction from the wartime loyalty and bravery to an overhaul of science fiction. Fukujiro Fukui and Ichio Matsushita are two artists remembered during this time period which relayed “reflecting a desire to forget the past”. Drawing styles from before the war were picked back up as if, and in many ways literally, beginning where they left off [3].

Osamu Tezuka, an uprising artist, struck fame in 1947. His art style became well known in his red book title, New Treasure Island, and his comic, Jungle Emperor, was featured in Manga Boy. Records estimate that New Treasure Island alone sold between 400,000 and 800,000 copies [3]. His works were immediately copied by other red book artists, and this imitation changed the look of Japanese comics as we know it [4].

Opening sequence to New Treasure Island [updated version];
read right to left, top to bottom

Tezuka’s influence on comics would ultimately help children comics separate from gekiga. It was his opinion that comics should remain childlike and be suitable for children, and thus his stories often reflected this. While many adapted his stylistic influence, many also incorporated storylines, plots, and themes that he introduced. While gekiga continued its mature, darker nature, Tezuka and his followers expanded the scope of children comics, making the two styles near-rivals. Regardless of the opposed storylines, Tezuka’s influence can be seen (literally) in some gekiga artist’s drawing styles [4].

Tezuka’s influences in his stories and art style ranged from a female-only Japanese theatre, his father’s shared love of film, and the American-made Disney comics. Each of Tezuka’s parents had significant effect on his decision of drawing comics and his upbringing brought about plenty of inspiration to write about and on which to base his works. Tezuka’s mother introduced him to the world of Takarazuka theatre, which included an all-female cast in his childhood town of Takarazuka, Japan [6], and his father’s interest of all things modern introduced the family to many new contraptions and movies, which could be played at home on the family’s 9.5mm projector. With this projector, Tezuka would be introduced to many American shorts, films, and animations, including Mickey Mouse and other Disney characters [4]. 

Princess Sapphire of Princess Knight; note
similarities to Disney animations of the time.

Takarazuka Theater inspired works like Princess Knight, a shoujo comic, which makes references to live theatre. Tezuka has historically noted how the Takarazuka theatre’s plays had inspired his works such as Princess Knight. Like the stage plays, Princess Knight is centered upon a charismatic character, a strong premise, and reference to cinematic movement. Characters wear ornate costumes and strike poses often, as a dramatic show of the show’s story. Music is also provided throughout both of these. In a seemingly diversion from his earlier works, where he displays more cinematic elements, Tezuka is even found copying the Takarazuka theatre’s sets, costumes, and music within his Princess Knight series [6]. Power states that this diversion proved the ability of live theatre and cinema to exist in a single work.

Knowing Tezuka’s affinity for Takarazuka theater, it is perhaps unsurprising that he and his Princess Knight series would later become famous for pushing shoujo comics further into public light and helping them gain momentum. Becoming intimately engaged with the theater and its actresses no doubt allotted to his interest in live theater, including in student theater, and enlarging his repertoire for more engaging storylines and scenery. It further allowed him immersion into “woman’s culture”, which provided first hand understanding for his character’s actions and development [6].

Osamu Tezuka is most notably recognizable for his drawing style, as has been stated several times, including his use of larger eyes. What has occasionally been lost to time is the inspiration, however, that this drawing style derived from the drawings of Disney and Max Fleisher [3]. As previously mentioned, Disney films were available in Japan during Tezuka’s youth and his father’s film projector allowed him access to animations that others may not have had. This exposition had an obvious effect on Tezuka’s drawings, who kept certain attributes also seen in early renditions of Mickey Mouse and other character, such as a similarly large eye structure and abnormal physical features [4].

Tezuka wasn’t the only illustrator to use Disney-like drawings and in fact several artists utilized this popular drawing style as a way to get themselves noticed or as a way of following the industry. Not all illustrators kept this style, either. In fact, in the rise of gekiga, notably Takao Saito, Masaaki Sato, and Yoshihiro Tatsumi were among those who replaced their Disney-like style with the more graphic, gritty forms of gekiga drawings. Among the arrival of television, many other artists followed suit and made their way towards gekiga [3].

Tezuka continues to inspire numerous artists, Schodt even claiming “none of the major artists today has escaped his influence”. From his expressive stories and characters, depictive drawing style, to his own rise to fame, a red book author in a time of an amateur-driven industry, provides inspiration to many in hopes of their own recognition. Although unsurprising, the post-Tezuka wave of new comic artists [3] is still awe-striking and effected every generation that followed.

In the next issue...
Actually, I’m not exactly sure. I would love to hear from readers about whether I should continue this timeline of history of Japanese comics past Tezuka or should I begin with my next counter-series and explore the history of American comics? I plan to divulge this anyway but seeing as there is still a bit more to follow in the Japanese history of things, I would like whatever input I can get on which way you would like me to go. Want more of this? Please let me know! Comment on this post, or tell me via Facebook or Twitter! 

  Can’t wait to hear from you and hope you are looking forward to the next continuation of the A Scroll in Time blog!

References/Sources:

[1]Gravett, Paul. Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics. New York, NY: Collins Design, 2003. Print.
[2]Koyama-Richard, Brigitte. One Thousand Years of Manga. Paris: Flammarion, 2007. Print.
[3]Schodt, Frederik L. Manga! Manga!: The World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1983. Print.
[4]Kinsella, Sharon. Adult Manga. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 2000. Print
[5]Isao, Shimizu. “Red Comic Books: The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga”. Illustrating Asia, John A. Lent. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 2001. Page 137-149. Print.
[6]Power, Natsu Onada. God of Comics: Osamu Tezuka and the Creation of Post-World War II Manga. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi, 2009. Print.

A Brief History of Japanese Comics Part 4: FLASHBACK- Wartime Politics

LAST TIME, IN  A SCROLL IN TIME…

We divulged details on some European influences on the comic industry and how Japanese audiences took part in developing their own influenced styles. We explored only a short list of names who were most influential within the Japanese comic book industry, both on the side of the European influences and the Japanese adapters. This time, we will take a short step back and explore the governmental and political effects on the Japanese comic industry, parallel to Part 2 and Part 3 of this series.

Despite Japan’s historical attempt to maintain isolationism, the 20^th century brought a lot of international ideas into the nation. The Russian Revolution in 1917 brought about plenty of political ideologies, including Marxism. Those in Japan that have witnessed undesirable economic inequalities followed this ideology as an anti-establishment movement [4].

Many comic artists used their medium to convey their idealist ideas, including Masamu Yanase, who took on the artistic style of resistance artists from Germany and the United States. Honda Kinkichiro (who I discussed in Part 3) served a year of imprisonment in 1880 for a cartoon he drew and released, which portrayed a parodied criticism for the Japanese government’s new parliamentary government [4].

Arrest was by no means uncommon in the manga industry at this time. Many cartoonists were a part of the proletarian cartoonist movement in the 1920s-1930s, (of which created cartoons attacking capitalists and the rich) and were arrested and tortured by the Special Higher Police responsible for suppressing such actions [3]. In fact, magazines were so intimidated by government actions that many designated a so-called “jail editor”- one employee who “had the honor of taking the rap and saving the company” [4].

The Taisho Era (1912-26) 
Following the Revolution, the 1920’s brought a lot of social change in Japan. The Taisho Era saw American comics imported into Japan, providing a mass of new material to imitate and mix within mass culture, although the Japanese government took actions to limit creative use. Importing from the United States included Western fashion and Jazz music, introducing dress and ideas of the 1920’s flapper to Japanese society.

*(Edit: Japan's war with China began in 1937)

Japan entered into war with China in 1926*. Thus, Japan entered into conflict earlier than most nations. While Japan’s public was influenced with Marxism and US’s flappers and “modern gals/boys”, Japan’s growing militarization was integrating into civilian life [4].

"MoGa" (modern girl); example of
the changing of fashion

 In the 1925, the “Peace Preservation” law took place [5]. This was the government’s attempt to control the media, projecting that the Press could allow “politically correct” stories only [2]. The government attempt at control pushed the majority of Japanese comic artists into stories for children and pornographic material, genres less likely to become political, in order to stay out of trouble. With most artists moving to these areas, they grew exponentially. Most notably, this transition helped to bring about a big uprising in children’s comic serials [4]. 

One such artist, apprenticed by Okamoto Ippei, is Shigeo Miyao, who began serials in 1922 with Manga Taro and continued with the successor Dango Kushisuke Man’yuki in 1924. Both serials would eventually be compiled and distributed in book form. With these accomplishments under his belt, Miyao became one of the first professional artists to work specifically on children’s comics [4]. 

Cover of a Shonen
Kurubu serial issue

Shonen Kurubu (Boy’s Club) made boys’ monthly serials popular in 1914 [2]. The magazine contained photo-articles, color printing, and serialized comics [4]. Shojo Kurubu (Girls’ Club) used this same equation centered on young girls in 1923, also finding high popularity. Yonen Club (Younger Children’s Club) centered the market on younger, school-aged children in a similar fashion in 1926 [2]. These serials consisted up to hundreds of pages, filled by mainly melodramatic storylines [1], literature, illustrated stories, and “a number of didactic articles” [2].

The Showa Era (1926-1989)

Inspired by the previous proletarian movement, young cartoonists developed their own organization in 1932. Inspired by cartoons from the United States and the strength and structure of a corporate organization, the Shin Manga-ha Shudan (New Cartoonists Faction Group)
promoted members as a group, and sought out publishing outlets [3]. 

They were successfully able to carve out their own piece of the cartooning industry with their ‘nonsense cartoons’, which was previously only integrated by few established cartoonists. The Group’s cartoons focused less on dialogue and more on the humorous aspects. The success of the Group led to popularity and success of several of its members, including Yokoyama, Sugiura, and Kondo [3].

The war years in Japan, 1937-1945, took a drastic toll on Japanese comics in general, perhaps due to their foreseen frivolousness [4]. Although extremely popular in its hay day beforehand, the Peace Preservation law limited the topics and relatable content allowed within all comics [1]. The evaporation of comics during this time shows both the effects of the law on comics, as well as the willingness, or lack thereof, which comic artists had to conform to them. This topic in particular, I hope to divulge in a later issue.

Examples of akahon (red books)

“Red books”, a miniature version of comics books, became popular, in addition to their larger counterpart, in the late 40s to mid-50s. Published in Osaka between 1947 and 1956, red books, akahon, became a popular selling point among children. Unlike most comics, red books were sold in candy stores, shrine and temple festivals, and night stalls, instead of the typical bookstore venues. They typically ranged between about the size of a postcard (letterhead B6), to half the size, (B7), to a forth the size of a postcard (B8), and would consist of 24-48 pages. The prices for these often one-shot mini books was between 10-50 yen (~10-50 cents) on the lower end, and a higher end comic being between 70-90 yen (~70-90 cents) [5].

Despite most red books omitting the names of the author and/or publisher, the works of Osamu Tezuka became iconic and easily identifiable. Gaining popularity from his own comic book works, Tezuka’s red book stories were often duplicated for the benefit of the copier. As his stories, such as Ryusenkei Jiken, became popular, other artists would create similar stories and imitate his drawing styles in order to sell the duplicated stories just as well as the original [6]. 

Although duplication of stories was commonplace among red books (anything that gained popularity among comic books would see its own duplication among red books), the imitation of Tezuka would later create its own movement within the manga genre. Not only did the imitations help inspire upcoming artists, but also helped bolster the quality of comic/red books as a whole [6].

IN THE NEXT ISSUE OF ‘A Scroll In Time’…
We extend our story further into the life and times of Japan’s ‘godfather of comics’. Curious about Tezuka’s inspirations? We’ll pinpoint the people and icons that made impressions on him as a creator, and which helped develop a modern manga iconic! 

TILL NEXT TIME!

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References/Sources:

[1]Gravett, Paul. Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics. New York, NY: Collins Design, 2003. Print.
[2]Koyama-Richard, Brigitte. One Thousand Years of Manga. Paris: Flammarion, 2007. Print.
[3]Okamoto, Rei.”Images of the Enemy in the Wartime ‘Manga’ Magazine, 1941-1945.” Illustrating Asia, John A. Lent. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 2001. Page 204-220. Print.
[4]Schodt, Frederik L. Manga! Manga!: The World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1983. Print.
[5]Kinsella, Sharon. Adult Manga. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 2000. Print
[6]Isao, Shimizu. “Red Comic Books: The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga”. Illustrating Asia, John A. Lent. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 2001. Page 137-149. Print.