A Brief History of Japanese Comics Part 4: FLASHBACK- Wartime Politics

LAST TIME, IN  A SCROLL IN TIME…

We divulged details on some European influences on the comic industry and how Japanese audiences took part in developing their own influenced styles. We explored only a short list of names who were most influential within the Japanese comic book industry, both on the side of the European influences and the Japanese adapters. This time, we will take a short step back and explore the governmental and political effects on the Japanese comic industry, parallel to Part 2 and Part 3 of this series.

Despite Japan’s historical attempt to maintain isolationism, the 20^th century brought a lot of international ideas into the nation. The Russian Revolution in 1917 brought about plenty of political ideologies, including Marxism. Those in Japan that have witnessed undesirable economic inequalities followed this ideology as an anti-establishment movement [4].

Many comic artists used their medium to convey their idealist ideas, including Masamu Yanase, who took on the artistic style of resistance artists from Germany and the United States. Honda Kinkichiro (who I discussed in Part 3) served a year of imprisonment in 1880 for a cartoon he drew and released, which portrayed a parodied criticism for the Japanese government’s new parliamentary government [4].

Arrest was by no means uncommon in the manga industry at this time. Many cartoonists were a part of the proletarian cartoonist movement in the 1920s-1930s, (of which created cartoons attacking capitalists and the rich) and were arrested and tortured by the Special Higher Police responsible for suppressing such actions [3]. In fact, magazines were so intimidated by government actions that many designated a so-called “jail editor”- one employee who “had the honor of taking the rap and saving the company” [4].

The Taisho Era (1912-26) 
Following the Revolution, the 1920’s brought a lot of social change in Japan. The Taisho Era saw American comics imported into Japan, providing a mass of new material to imitate and mix within mass culture, although the Japanese government took actions to limit creative use. Importing from the United States included Western fashion and Jazz music, introducing dress and ideas of the 1920’s flapper to Japanese society.

*(Edit: Japan's war with China began in 1937)

Japan entered into war with China in 1926*. Thus, Japan entered into conflict earlier than most nations. While Japan’s public was influenced with Marxism and US’s flappers and “modern gals/boys”, Japan’s growing militarization was integrating into civilian life [4].

"MoGa" (modern girl); example of
the changing of fashion

 In the 1925, the “Peace Preservation” law took place [5]. This was the government’s attempt to control the media, projecting that the Press could allow “politically correct” stories only [2]. The government attempt at control pushed the majority of Japanese comic artists into stories for children and pornographic material, genres less likely to become political, in order to stay out of trouble. With most artists moving to these areas, they grew exponentially. Most notably, this transition helped to bring about a big uprising in children’s comic serials [4]. 

One such artist, apprenticed by Okamoto Ippei, is Shigeo Miyao, who began serials in 1922 with Manga Taro and continued with the successor Dango Kushisuke Man’yuki in 1924. Both serials would eventually be compiled and distributed in book form. With these accomplishments under his belt, Miyao became one of the first professional artists to work specifically on children’s comics [4]. 

Cover of a Shonen
Kurubu serial issue

Shonen Kurubu (Boy’s Club) made boys’ monthly serials popular in 1914 [2]. The magazine contained photo-articles, color printing, and serialized comics [4]. Shojo Kurubu (Girls’ Club) used this same equation centered on young girls in 1923, also finding high popularity. Yonen Club (Younger Children’s Club) centered the market on younger, school-aged children in a similar fashion in 1926 [2]. These serials consisted up to hundreds of pages, filled by mainly melodramatic storylines [1], literature, illustrated stories, and “a number of didactic articles” [2].

The Showa Era (1926-1989)

Inspired by the previous proletarian movement, young cartoonists developed their own organization in 1932. Inspired by cartoons from the United States and the strength and structure of a corporate organization, the Shin Manga-ha Shudan (New Cartoonists Faction Group)
promoted members as a group, and sought out publishing outlets [3]. 

They were successfully able to carve out their own piece of the cartooning industry with their ‘nonsense cartoons’, which was previously only integrated by few established cartoonists. The Group’s cartoons focused less on dialogue and more on the humorous aspects. The success of the Group led to popularity and success of several of its members, including Yokoyama, Sugiura, and Kondo [3].

The war years in Japan, 1937-1945, took a drastic toll on Japanese comics in general, perhaps due to their foreseen frivolousness [4]. Although extremely popular in its hay day beforehand, the Peace Preservation law limited the topics and relatable content allowed within all comics [1]. The evaporation of comics during this time shows both the effects of the law on comics, as well as the willingness, or lack thereof, which comic artists had to conform to them. This topic in particular, I hope to divulge in a later issue.

Examples of akahon (red books)

“Red books”, a miniature version of comics books, became popular, in addition to their larger counterpart, in the late 40s to mid-50s. Published in Osaka between 1947 and 1956, red books, akahon, became a popular selling point among children. Unlike most comics, red books were sold in candy stores, shrine and temple festivals, and night stalls, instead of the typical bookstore venues. They typically ranged between about the size of a postcard (letterhead B6), to half the size, (B7), to a forth the size of a postcard (B8), and would consist of 24-48 pages. The prices for these often one-shot mini books was between 10-50 yen (~10-50 cents) on the lower end, and a higher end comic being between 70-90 yen (~70-90 cents) [5].

Despite most red books omitting the names of the author and/or publisher, the works of Osamu Tezuka became iconic and easily identifiable. Gaining popularity from his own comic book works, Tezuka’s red book stories were often duplicated for the benefit of the copier. As his stories, such as Ryusenkei Jiken, became popular, other artists would create similar stories and imitate his drawing styles in order to sell the duplicated stories just as well as the original [6]. 

Although duplication of stories was commonplace among red books (anything that gained popularity among comic books would see its own duplication among red books), the imitation of Tezuka would later create its own movement within the manga genre. Not only did the imitations help inspire upcoming artists, but also helped bolster the quality of comic/red books as a whole [6].

IN THE NEXT ISSUE OF ‘A Scroll In Time’…
We extend our story further into the life and times of Japan’s ‘godfather of comics’. Curious about Tezuka’s inspirations? We’ll pinpoint the people and icons that made impressions on him as a creator, and which helped develop a modern manga iconic! 

TILL NEXT TIME!

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References/Sources:

[1]Gravett, Paul. Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics. New York, NY: Collins Design, 2003. Print.
[2]Koyama-Richard, Brigitte. One Thousand Years of Manga. Paris: Flammarion, 2007. Print.
[3]Okamoto, Rei.”Images of the Enemy in the Wartime ‘Manga’ Magazine, 1941-1945.” Illustrating Asia, John A. Lent. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 2001. Page 204-220. Print.
[4]Schodt, Frederik L. Manga! Manga!: The World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1983. Print.
[5]Kinsella, Sharon. Adult Manga. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 2000. Print
[6]Isao, Shimizu. “Red Comic Books: The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga”. Illustrating Asia, John A. Lent. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 2001. Page 137-149. Print.